According to Wade Boykin and Pedro Noguera's research review, student engagement was a more significant factor than the amount of instructional time or structural factors, such as student-teacher ratio, in students' achievement in math and reading. These authors say there are three levels of engagement.
- behavioral engagement is "on-task" behavior in class that includes persistence, asking questions, taking part in discussions, and knowing when to ask for help when they are stuck.
- cognitive engagement can be seen when students show deep involvement and effort to understand a challenging concept or issue or acquire a difficult skill
- affective engagement manifests itself through a student's high interest level, positive affect and attitude, curiosity, and task involvement.
(notes from Education Update, ASCD, March 2012)
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